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ch4_TypeFundamentals.html
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<!DOCTYPE html>
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<title>ch4_TypeFundamentals</title>
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--vscode-panel-dropBorder:#424242;
--vscode-panelSection-dropBackground:rgba(38, 119, 203, 0.18);
--vscode-panelSectionHeader-background:rgba(128, 128, 128, 0.2);
--vscode-panelSection-border:rgba(128, 128, 128, 0.35);
--vscode-statusBar-foreground:#ffffff;
--vscode-statusBar-noFolderForeground:#ffffff;
--vscode-statusBar-background:#007acc;
--vscode-statusBar-noFolderBackground:#68217a;
--vscode-statusBarItem-activeBackground:rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.18);
--vscode-statusBarItem-hoverBackground:rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.12);
--vscode-statusBarItem-prominentForeground:#ffffff;
--vscode-statusBarItem-prominentBackground:rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.5);
--vscode-statusBarItem-prominentHoverBackground:rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3);
--vscode-activityBar-background:#2c2c2c;
--vscode-activityBar-foreground:#ffffff;
--vscode-activityBar-inactiveForeground:rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.4);
--vscode-activityBar-activeBorder:#ffffff;
--vscode-activityBar-dropBorder:#ffffff;
--vscode-activityBarBadge-background:#007acc;
--vscode-activityBarBadge-foreground:#ffffff;
--vscode-statusBarItem-remoteBackground:#16825d;
--vscode-statusBarItem-remoteForeground:#ffffff;
--vscode-extensionBadge-remoteBackground:#007acc;
--vscode-extensionBadge-remoteForeground:#ffffff;
--vscode-sideBar-background:#f3f3f3;
--vscode-sideBarTitle-foreground:#6f6f6f;
--vscode-sideBar-dropBackground:rgba(38, 119, 203, 0.18);
--vscode-sideBarSectionHeader-background:rgba(0, 0, 0, 0);
--vscode-sideBarSectionHeader-border:rgba(97, 97, 97, 0.19);
--vscode-titleBar-activeForeground:#333333;
--vscode-titleBar-inactiveForeground:rgba(51, 51, 51, 0.6);
--vscode-titleBar-activeBackground:#dddddd;
--vscode-titleBar-inactiveBackground:rgba(221, 221, 221, 0.6);
--vscode-menubar-selectionForeground:#333333;
--vscode-menubar-selectionBackground:rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1);
--vscode-notifications-foreground:#616161;
--vscode-notifications-background:#f3f3f3;
--vscode-notificationLink-foreground:#006ab1;
--vscode-notificationCenterHeader-background:#e7e7e7;
--vscode-notifications-border:#e7e7e7;
--vscode-notificationsErrorIcon-foreground:#e51400;
--vscode-notificationsWarningIcon-foreground:#e9a700;
--vscode-notificationsInfoIcon-foreground:#75beff;
--vscode-editorGutter-commentRangeForeground:#c5c5c5;
--vscode-editor-stackFrameHighlightBackground:rgba(255, 255, 102, 0.45);
--vscode-editor-focusedStackFrameHighlightBackground:rgba(206, 231, 206, 0.45);
--vscode-terminal-foreground:#333333;
--vscode-terminal-selectionBackground:rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.25);
--vscode-terminal-border:rgba(128, 128, 128, 0.35);
--vscode-statusBar-debuggingBackground:#cc6633;
--vscode-statusBar-debuggingForeground:#ffffff;
--vscode-settings-headerForeground:#444444;
--vscode-settings-modifiedItemIndicator:#66afe0;
--vscode-settings-dropdownBackground:#ffffff;
--vscode-settings-dropdownBorder:#cecece;
--vscode-settings-dropdownListBorder:#c8c8c8;
--vscode-settings-checkboxBackground:#ffffff;
--vscode-settings-checkboxBorder:#cecece;
--vscode-settings-textInputBackground:#ffffff;
--vscode-settings-textInputForeground:#616161;
--vscode-settings-textInputBorder:#cecece;
--vscode-settings-numberInputBackground:#ffffff;
--vscode-settings-numberInputForeground:#616161;
--vscode-settings-numberInputBorder:#cecece;
--vscode-debugExceptionWidget-border:#a31515;
--vscode-debugExceptionWidget-background:#f1dfde;
--vscode-editorGutter-modifiedBackground:#66afe0;
--vscode-editorGutter-addedBackground:#81b88b;
--vscode-editorGutter-deletedBackground:#ca4b51;
--vscode-minimapGutter-modifiedBackground:#66afe0;
--vscode-minimapGutter-addedBackground:#81b88b;
--vscode-minimapGutter-deletedBackground:#ca4b51;
--vscode-editorOverviewRuler-modifiedForeground:rgba(102, 175, 224, 0.6);
--vscode-editorOverviewRuler-addedForeground:rgba(129, 184, 139, 0.6);
--vscode-editorOverviewRuler-deletedForeground:rgba(202, 75, 81, 0.6);
--vscode-searchEditor-textInputBorder:#cecece;
--vscode-debugIcon-breakpointForeground:#e51400;
--vscode-debugIcon-breakpointDisabledForeground:#848484;
--vscode-debugIcon-breakpointUnverifiedForeground:#848484;
--vscode-debugIcon-breakpointCurrentStackframeForeground:#ffcc00;
--vscode-debugIcon-breakpointStackframeForeground:#89d185;
--vscode-debugToolBar-background:#f3f3f3;
--vscode-debugIcon-startForeground:#388a34;
--vscode-debugIcon-pauseForeground:#007acc;
--vscode-debugIcon-stopForeground:#a1260d;
--vscode-debugIcon-disconnectForeground:#a1260d;
--vscode-debugIcon-restartForeground:#388a34;
--vscode-debugIcon-stepOverForeground:#007acc;
--vscode-debugIcon-stepIntoForeground:#007acc;
--vscode-debugIcon-stepOutForeground:#007acc;
--vscode-debugIcon-continueForeground:#007acc;
--vscode-debugIcon-stepBackForeground:#007acc;
--vscode-debugTokenExpression-name:#9b46b0;
--vscode-debugTokenExpression-value:rgba(108, 108, 108, 0.8);
--vscode-debugTokenExpression-string:#a31515;
--vscode-debugTokenExpression-boolean:#0000ff;
--vscode-debugTokenExpression-number:#098658;
--vscode-debugTokenExpression-error:#e51400;
--vscode-debugView-exceptionLabelForeground:#ffffff;
--vscode-debugView-exceptionLabelBackground:#a31515;
--vscode-debugView-stateLabelForeground:#616161;
--vscode-debugView-stateLabelBackground:rgba(136, 136, 136, 0.27);
--vscode-debugView-valueChangedHighlight:#569cd6;
--vscode-debugConsole-infoForeground:#75beff;
--vscode-debugConsole-warningForeground:#e9a700;
--vscode-debugConsole-errorForeground:#a1260d;
--vscode-debugConsole-sourceForeground:#616161;
--vscode-debugConsoleInputIcon-foreground:#616161;
--vscode-extensionButton-prominentBackground:#327e36;
--vscode-extensionButton-prominentForeground:#ffffff;
--vscode-extensionButton-prominentHoverBackground:#28632b;
--vscode-notebook-cellBorderColor:#dae3e9;
--vscode-notebook-focusedEditorBorder:#0090f1;
--vscode-notebookStatusSuccessIcon-foreground:#388a34;
--vscode-notebookStatusErrorIcon-foreground:#a1260d;
--vscode-notebookStatusRunningIcon-foreground:#616161;
--vscode-notebook-outputContainerBackgroundColor:rgba(200, 221, 241, 0.31);
--vscode-notebook-cellToolbarSeparator:rgba(128, 128, 128, 0.35);
--vscode-notebook-focusedCellBackground:rgba(200, 221, 241, 0.31);
--vscode-notebook-cellHoverBackground:rgba(200, 221, 241, 0.22);
--vscode-notebook-focusedCellBorder:rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.12);
--vscode-notebook-cellStatusBarItemHoverBackground:rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.08);
--vscode-notebook-cellInsertionIndicator:#0090f1;
--vscode-notebookScrollbarSlider-background:rgba(100, 100, 100, 0.4);
--vscode-notebookScrollbarSlider-hoverBackground:rgba(100, 100, 100, 0.7);
--vscode-notebookScrollbarSlider-activeBackground:rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.6);
--vscode-notebook-symbolHighlightBackground:rgba(253, 255, 0, 0.2);
--vscode-scm-providerBorder:#c8c8c8;
--vscode-terminal-ansiBlack:#000000;
--vscode-terminal-ansiRed:#cd3131;
--vscode-terminal-ansiGreen:#00bc00;
--vscode-terminal-ansiYellow:#949800;
--vscode-terminal-ansiBlue:#0451a5;
--vscode-terminal-ansiMagenta:#bc05bc;
--vscode-terminal-ansiCyan:#0598bc;
--vscode-terminal-ansiWhite:#555555;
--vscode-terminal-ansiBrightBlack:#666666;
--vscode-terminal-ansiBrightRed:#cd3131;
--vscode-terminal-ansiBrightGreen:#14ce14;
--vscode-terminal-ansiBrightYellow:#b5ba00;
--vscode-terminal-ansiBrightBlue:#0451a5;
--vscode-terminal-ansiBrightMagenta:#bc05bc;
--vscode-terminal-ansiBrightCyan:#0598bc;
--vscode-terminal-ansiBrightWhite:#a5a5a5;
--vscode-gitDecoration-addedResourceForeground:#587c0c;
--vscode-gitDecoration-modifiedResourceForeground:#895503;
--vscode-gitDecoration-deletedResourceForeground:#ad0707;
--vscode-gitDecoration-untrackedResourceForeground:#007100;
--vscode-gitDecoration-ignoredResourceForeground:#8e8e90;
--vscode-gitDecoration-conflictingResourceForeground:#6c6cc4;
--vscode-gitDecoration-submoduleResourceForeground:#1258a7;
--vscode-gitlens-gutterBackgroundColor:rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05);
--vscode-gitlens-gutterForegroundColor:#747474;
--vscode-gitlens-gutterUncommittedForegroundColor:rgba(0, 188, 242, 0.6);
--vscode-gitlens-trailingLineBackgroundColor:rgba(0, 0, 0, 0);
--vscode-gitlens-trailingLineForegroundColor:rgba(153, 153, 153, 0.35);
--vscode-gitlens-lineHighlightBackgroundColor:rgba(0, 188, 242, 0.2);
--vscode-gitlens-lineHighlightOverviewRulerColor:rgba(0, 188, 242, 0.6);
--vscode-issues-newIssueDecoration:rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.28);
}
body
{
background-color: var(--vscode-editor-background);
color: var(--vscode-editor-foreground);
font-family: var(--vscode-font-family);
font-weight: var(--vscode-font-weight);
font-size: var(--vscode-font-size);
margin: 0;
padding: 0 20px;
}
img
{
max-width: 100%;
max-height: 100%;
}
a
{
color: var(--vscode-textLink-foreground);
}
a:hover
{
color: var(--vscode-textLink-activeForeground);
}
a:focus,
input:focus,
select:focus,
textarea:focus
{
outline: 1px solid -webkit-focus-ring-color;
outline-offset: -1px;
}
code
{
color: var(--vscode-textPreformat-foreground);
}
blockquote
{
background: var(--vscode-textBlockQuote-background);
border-color: var(--vscode-textBlockQuote-border);
}
kbd
{
color: var(--vscode-editor-foreground);
border-radius: 3px;
vertical-align: middle;
padding: 1px 3px;
background-color: hsla(0,0%,50%,.17);
border: 1px solid rgba(71,71,71,.4);
border-bottom-color: rgba(88,88,88,.4);
box-shadow: inset 0 -1px 0 rgba(88,88,88,.4);
}
.vscode-light kbd
{
background-color: hsla(0,0%,87%,.5);
border: 1px solid hsla(0,0%,80%,.7);
border-bottom-color: hsla(0,0%,73%,.7);
box-shadow: inset 0 -1px 0 hsla(0,0%,73%,.7);
}
::-webkit-scrollbar
{
width: 10px;
height: 10px;
}
::-webkit-scrollbar-corner
{
background-color: var(--vscode-editor-background);
}
::-webkit-scrollbar-thumb
{
background-color: var(--vscode-scrollbarSlider-background);
}
::-webkit-scrollbar-thumb:hover
{
background-color: var(--vscode-scrollbarSlider-hoverBackground);
}
::-webkit-scrollbar-thumb:active
{
background-color: var(--vscode-scrollbarSlider-activeBackground);
}
.emoji
{
height: 20px;
}
pre
{
white-space: pre-wrap;
}
.page-break
{
display: block;
page-break-after: always;
}
.no-page-break
{
page-break-inside: avoid;
}
</style>
<style>/*---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Copyright (c) Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
* Licensed under the MIT License. See License.txt in the project root for license information.
*--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
.vscode-dark img[src$=\#gh-light-mode-only],
.vscode-light img[src$=\#gh-dark-mode-only] {
display: none;
}
</style>
<style>/*---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Copyright (c) Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
* Licensed under the MIT License. See License.txt in the project root for license information.
*--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
html, body {
font-family: var(--markdown-font-family, -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, "Segoe WPC", "Segoe UI", system-ui, "Ubuntu", "Droid Sans", sans-serif);
font-size: var(--markdown-font-size, 14px);
padding: 0 26px;
line-height: var(--markdown-line-height, 22px);
word-wrap: break-word;
overscroll-behavior-x: none;
}
body {
padding-top: 1em;
}
/* Reset margin top for elements */
h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6,
p, ol, ul, pre {
margin-top: 0;
}
h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 {
font-weight: 600;
margin-top: 24px;
margin-bottom: 16px;
line-height: 1.25;
}
#code-csp-warning {
position: fixed;
top: 0;
right: 0;
color: white;
margin: 16px;
text-align: center;
font-size: 12px;
font-family: sans-serif;
background-color:#444444;
cursor: pointer;
padding: 6px;
box-shadow: 1px 1px 1px rgba(0,0,0,.25);
}
#code-csp-warning:hover {
text-decoration: none;
background-color:#007acc;
box-shadow: 2px 2px 2px rgba(0,0,0,.25);
}
body.scrollBeyondLastLine {
margin-bottom: calc(100vh - 22px);
}
body.showEditorSelection .code-line {
position: relative;
}
body.showEditorSelection :not(tr,ul,ol).code-active-line:before,
body.showEditorSelection :not(tr,ul,ol).code-line:hover:before {
content: "";
display: block;
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: -12px;
height: 100%;
}
.vscode-high-contrast.showEditorSelection :not(tr,ul,ol).code-line .code-line:hover:before {
border-left: none;
}
body.showEditorSelection li.code-active-line:before,
body.showEditorSelection li.code-line:hover:before {
left: -30px;
}
.vscode-light.showEditorSelection .code-active-line:before {
border-left: 3px solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.15);
}
.vscode-light.showEditorSelection .code-line:hover:before {
border-left: 3px solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.40);
}
.vscode-dark.showEditorSelection .code-active-line:before {
border-left: 3px solid rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.4);
}
.vscode-dark.showEditorSelection .code-line:hover:before {
border-left: 3px solid rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.60);
}
.vscode-high-contrast.showEditorSelection .code-active-line:before {
border-left: 3px solid rgba(255, 160, 0, 0.7);
}
.vscode-high-contrast.showEditorSelection .code-line:hover:before {
border-left: 3px solid rgba(255, 160, 0, 1);
}
/* Prevent `sub` and `sup` elements from affecting line height */
sub,
sup {
line-height: 0;
}
ul ul,
ul ol,
ol ul,
ol ol {
margin-bottom: 0;
}
img, video {
max-width: 100%;
max-height: 100%;
}
a {
text-decoration: none;
}
a:hover {
text-decoration: underline;
}
a:focus,
input:focus,
select:focus,
textarea:focus {
outline: 1px solid -webkit-focus-ring-color;
outline-offset: -1px;
}
p {
margin-bottom: 16px;
}
ul,
ol {
margin-bottom: 0.7em;
}
hr {
border: 0;
height: 1px;
border-bottom: 1px solid;
}
h1 {
font-size: 2em;
margin-top: 0;
padding-bottom: 0.3em;
border-bottom-width: 1px;
border-bottom-style: solid;
}
h2 {
font-size: 1.5em;
padding-bottom: 0.3em;
border-bottom-width: 1px;
border-bottom-style: solid;
}
h3 {
font-size: 1.25em;
}
h4 {
font-size: 1em;
}
h5 {
font-size: 0.875em;
}
h6 {
font-size: 0.85em;
}
table {
border-collapse: collapse;
margin-bottom: 0.7em;
}
th {
text-align: left;
border-bottom: 1px solid;
}
th,
td {
padding: 5px 10px;
}
table > tbody > tr + tr > td {
border-top: 1px solid;
}
blockquote {
margin: 0 7px 0 5px;
padding: 0 16px 0 10px;
border-left-width: 5px;
border-left-style: solid;
}
code {
font-family: var(--vscode-editor-font-family, "SF Mono", Monaco, Menlo, Consolas, "Ubuntu Mono", "Liberation Mono", "DejaVu Sans Mono", "Courier New", monospace);
font-size: 1em;
line-height: 1.357em;
}
body.wordWrap pre {
white-space: pre-wrap;
}
pre:not(.hljs),
pre.hljs code > div {
padding: 16px;
border-radius: 3px;
overflow: auto;
}
pre code {
color: var(--vscode-editor-foreground);
tab-size: 4;
}
/** Theming */
pre {
background-color: var(--vscode-textCodeBlock-background);
}
.vscode-high-contrast h1 {
border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0);
}
.vscode-light th {
border-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.69);
}
.vscode-dark th {
border-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.69);
}
.vscode-light h1,
.vscode-light h2,
.vscode-light hr,
.vscode-light td {
border-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.18);
}
.vscode-dark h1,
.vscode-dark h2,
.vscode-dark hr,
.vscode-dark td {
border-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.18);
}
</style>
<style>/*
https://raw.githubusercontent.com/isagalaev/highlight.js/master/src/styles/vs2015.css
*/
/*
* Visual Studio 2015 dark style
* Author: Nicolas LLOBERA <[email protected]>
*/
.hljs-keyword,
.hljs-literal,
.hljs-symbol,
.hljs-name {
color: #569CD6;
}
.hljs-link {
color: #569CD6;
text-decoration: underline;
}
.hljs-built_in,
.hljs-type {
color: #4EC9B0;
}
.hljs-number,
.hljs-class {
color: #B8D7A3;
}
.hljs-string,
.hljs-meta-string {
color: #D69D85;
}
.hljs-regexp,
.hljs-template-tag {
color: #9A5334;
}
.hljs-subst,
.hljs-function,
.hljs-title,
.hljs-params,
.hljs-formula {
color: #DCDCDC;
}
.hljs-comment,
.hljs-quote {
color: #57A64A;
font-style: italic;
}
.hljs-doctag {
color: #608B4E;
}
.hljs-meta,
.hljs-meta-keyword,
.hljs-tag {
color: #9B9B9B;
}
.hljs-variable,
.hljs-template-variable {
color: #BD63C5;
}
.hljs-attr,
.hljs-attribute,
.hljs-builtin-name {
color: #9CDCFE;
}
.hljs-section {
color: gold;
}
.hljs-emphasis {
font-style: italic;
}
.hljs-strong {
font-weight: bold;
}
/*.hljs-code {
font-family:'Monospace';
}*/
.hljs-bullet,
.hljs-selector-tag,
.hljs-selector-id,
.hljs-selector-class,
.hljs-selector-attr,
.hljs-selector-pseudo {
color: #D7BA7D;
}
.hljs-addition {
background-color: var(--vscode-diffEditor-insertedTextBackground, rgba(155, 185, 85, 0.2));
color: rgb(155, 185, 85);
display: inline-block;
width: 100%;
}
.hljs-deletion {
background: var(--vscode-diffEditor-removedTextBackground, rgba(255, 0, 0, 0.2));
color: rgb(255, 0, 0);
display: inline-block;
width: 100%;
}
/*
From https://raw.githubusercontent.com/isagalaev/highlight.js/master/src/styles/vs.css
*/
/*
Visual Studio-like style based on original C# coloring by Jason Diamond <[email protected]>
*/
.vscode-light .hljs-function,
.vscode-light .hljs-params,
.vscode-light .hljs-number,
.vscode-light .hljs-class {
color: inherit;
}
.vscode-light .hljs-comment,
.vscode-light .hljs-quote,
.vscode-light .hljs-number,
.vscode-light .hljs-class,
.vscode-light .hljs-variable {
color: #008000;
}
.vscode-light .hljs-keyword,
.vscode-light .hljs-selector-tag,
.vscode-light .hljs-name,
.vscode-light .hljs-tag {
color: #00f;
}
.vscode-light .hljs-built_in,
.vscode-light .hljs-builtin-name {
color: #007acc;
}
.vscode-light .hljs-string,
.vscode-light .hljs-section,
.vscode-light .hljs-attribute,
.vscode-light .hljs-literal,
.vscode-light .hljs-template-tag,
.vscode-light .hljs-template-variable,
.vscode-light .hljs-type {
color: #a31515;
}
.vscode-light .hljs-selector-attr,
.vscode-light .hljs-selector-pseudo,
.vscode-light .hljs-meta,
.vscode-light .hljs-meta-keyword {
color: #2b91af;
}
.vscode-light .hljs-title,
.vscode-light .hljs-doctag {
color: #808080;
}
.vscode-light .hljs-attr {
color: #f00;
}
.vscode-light .hljs-symbol,
.vscode-light .hljs-bullet,
.vscode-light .hljs-link {
color: #00b0e8;
}
.vscode-light .hljs-emphasis {
font-style: italic;
}
.vscode-light .hljs-strong {
font-weight: bold;
}
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